The Hominidae (anglicized hominids, also known as great apes^{[notes 1]}) form a taxonomic family What does and does not belong to each family is determined by a taxonomist. Similarly for the question if a particular family should be recognized at all. Often there is no exact agreement, with different taxonomists each taking a different position. There are no hard rules that a taxonomist needs to follow in describing or recognizing a family, including four extant genera In biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank (a taxon) used in the classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia. The term comes from Latin genus "descent, family, type, gender", cognate with Greek: γένος – genos, "race, stock, kin": chimpanzees Chimpanzee, sometimes colloquially chimp, is the common name for the two extant species of ape in the genus Pan. The Congo River forms the boundary between the native habitat of the two species:, gorillas Gorillas are the largest of the living primates. They are ground-dwelling and predominantly herbivorous. They inhabit the forests of central Africa. Gorillas are divided into two species and either four or five subspecies. The DNA of gorillas is 98%–99% identical to that of a human, and they are the next closest living relatives to humans after, humans Homo is the genus that includes modern humans and species closely related to them. The genus is estimated to be about 2.3 to 2.4 million years old, evolving from australopithecine ancestors with the appearance of Homo habilis. Specifically, H. habilis is assumed to be the direct descendant of Australopithecus garhi which lived about 2.5 million, and orangutans The orangutans are the only exclusively Asian living genus of great ape. They are among the most intelligent primates and use a variety of sophisticated tools, also making sleeping nests each night from branches and foliage. They are generally not aggressive and live a mostly solitary life foraging for food. They are the largest living arboreal.^[1]

A number of known extinct genera are grouped with humans in the Homininae Homininae is a subfamily of Hominidae, which includes humans, gorillas and chimpanzees, and some extinct human relatives; it comprises all those hominids, such as Australopithecus, that arose after the split from the other great apes subfamily, others with orangutans in the Ponginae subfamily. The most recent common ancestor In genetics, the most recent common ancestor of any set of organisms is the most recent individual from which all organisms in the group are directly descended. The term is often applied to human genealogy of the Hominidae lived roughly 14 million years ago,^[2] when the ancestors of the orangutans speciated from the ancestors of the other three genera.^[3] The ancestors of the Hominidae family had already speciated from those of the Hylobatidae Gibbons are apes in the family Hylobatidae . The family is divided into four genera based on their diploid chromosome number: Hylobates (44), Hoolock (38), Nomascus (52), and Symphalangus (50). The extinct Bunopithecus sericus is a gibbon or gibbon-like ape which, until recently, was thought to be closely related to the Hoolock gibbons. Gibbons family, perhaps 15-20 million years ago.^[3][4]

History

On July 19, 2001, a 7-million-year-old fossil Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals, plants, and other organisms from the remote past. The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, and their placement in fossiliferous (fossil-containing) rock formations and sedimentary layers (strata) is known as the fossil record. The study of fossils across geological time, how skull The skull is a bony structure in the head of many animals that supports the structures of the face and protects the brain from injury, classified as Sahelanthropus tchadensis Sahelanthropus tchadensis is an extinct hominid species that is dated to about 7 million years ago. Whether it can be regarded as part of the Hominina tree is unclear; there are arguments both supporting and rejecting it. Another complication in its classification is that it is older than the human-chimpanzee divergence seen in genetic data, and and nicknamed "Toumaï", was discovered in Chad Chad , officially known as the Republic of Chad, is a landlocked country in central Africa. It is bordered by Libya to the north, Sudan to the east, the Central African Republic to the south, Cameroon and Nigeria to the southwest, and Niger to the west. Due to its distance from the sea and its largely desert climate, the country is sometimes, Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area. With a billion people (as of 2009, see table) in 61 territories, it accounts for about 14.72% of the world's human population. It is possibly the earliest hominine fossil Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals, plants, and other organisms from the remote past. The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, and their placement in fossiliferous (fossil-containing) rock formations and sedimentary layers (strata) is known as the fossil record. The study of fossils across geological time, how ever found. In addition to its age, Toumaï, unlike the three- to four-million-year younger gracile australopithecine The genus Australopithecus is a genus of extinct hominids, made up of the gracile australopiths, and formerly also included their larger relatives, the robust australopiths (which are now given their own genus). The genus Australopithecus is closely related to the human genus Homo, and may be ancestral to it dubbed "Lucy Lucy (also given a second name: dinqineš, or “Dinkenesh,” meaning “You are beautiful” or "you are wonderful") is the common name of AL 288-1, the nearly 40% complete skeleton of an Australopithecus afarensis specimen discovered in 1974 at Hadar in the Awash Valley of Ethiopia's Afar Depression. Lucy is estimated to have lived 3.2", has a relatively flat face without the prominent snout seen on other pre-Homo Homo is the genus that includes modern humans and species closely related to them. The genus is estimated to be about 2.3 to 2.4 million years old, evolving from australopithecine ancestors with the appearance of Homo habilis. Specifically, H. habilis is assumed to be the direct descendant of Australopithecus garhi which lived about 2.5 million hominids^[5]. There is some dispute over the importance of Sahelanthropus tchadensis. Professor Daniel E. Lieberman, has suggested this previously unknown species may be a direct ancestor of modern humans (or at least closely related to a direct ancestor). Others such as Professor Bernard Wood argue that one fossil is not enough to make such a claim because appearance is an unreliable method of determining evolutionary relations.^[6]

Researchers such as David Reich, Eric Lander, et al argue that the species associated with the divergence between chimpanzees and proto-humans, swapped genes over time through interbreeding, before finally separating.^[7] It is generally believed that the Pan/Homo separation occurred about 6 – 8 million years ago,^[8][9][10] but the molecular clock The molecular clock (based on the molecular clock hypothesis ) is a technique in molecular evolution that uses fossil constraints and rates of molecular change to deduce the time in geologic history when two species or other taxa diverged. It is used to estimate the time of occurrence of events called speciation or radiation. The molecular data (a method of calculating evolution based on the rate at which genes mutate) suggests the genera division 4.6 – 6.2 million years ago.^[11] Previous studies looked at average genetic differences between human and chimp. The new study compares the ages of key sequences of genes of modern humans and modern chimps. Some sequences are younger than others, indicating that chimps and humans gradually separated over a period of 4 million years. The youngest human chromosome is the X chromosome The X chromosome is one of the two sex-determining chromosomes in many animal species, including mammals . It is a part of the XY sex-determination system and X0 sex-determination system. The X chromosome was named for its unique properties by early researchers, which resulted in the naming of its counterpart Y chromosome, for the next letter in which is about 1.2 million years more recent than the 22 autosomes.^[7] The X sex chromosome is known to be vulnerable to selective pressure.^[12] Its age suggests there was an initial division between the two species, followed by gradual divergence and interbreeding that resulted in younger genes, and then a final separation.

An alternative minority viewpoint is that Homo diverged from a common ancestor with Pongo perhaps as early as 13 million years ago while Pan is more closely related to Gorilla. This alternative is supported by characteristics uniquely shared between humans and orangutans such as dental structure, thick enamel, shoulder blade structure, thick posterior palate, single incisive foramen, high estriol production, and beard and mustache. There are at least 28 well corroborated such features compared with perhaps as little as one unique feature shared between humans and chimpanzees. It is widely believed that these physical features are misleading, but an alternative possibility is that orangutans have undergone more genetic change than humans and African apes have since their divergence from the common ancestor. If this had happened, then the apparent genetic similarity between humans and chimpanzees would not necessarily be due to a close evolutionary relationship.^[13][14] This theory has been proposed as an explanation as to why early hominids such as the australopiths not only look more like orangutans than either African ape, but also share characters unique to orangutans and their close fossil relatives such as a thickened posteror palate and anterior zygomatic roots.^[15]

Taxonomic history

The classification of the great apes has been revised several times An ape is any member of the Hominoidea superfamily of primates, including humans. Due to its ambiguous nature, the term ape has been deemphasized in favor of Hominoidea as a means of describing taxonomic relationships in the last few decades. Originally, Hominidae was the name given to humans and their extinct In biology and ecology, extinction is the end of an organism or group of taxa. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of that species . Because a species' potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. This difficulty leads to phenomena relatives, with the other great apes An ape is any member of the Hominoidea superfamily of primates, including humans. Due to its ambiguous nature, the term ape has been deemphasized in favor of Hominoidea as a means of describing taxonomic relationships being placed in a separate family, the Pongidae. However, that definition makes Pongidae paraphyletic A group of taxa is said to be paraphyletic if the group contains its last common ancestor but does not contain all the descendants of that ancestor. This term is used in both phylogenetics[note 1] and linguistics because at least one great ape species appears to be more closely related to humans than other great apes. Most taxonomists nowadays encourage monophyletic In common cladistic usage, monophyletic describes a group of organisms that form a clade, consisting of a last common ancestor and all of its descendants. The term is not synonymous with the less common term holophyly, which does not include a last common ancestor. It is contrasted with the terms paraphyly, which is a taxonomic group consisting of groups so this would require the use of Pongidae to be restricted to one of the great ape groups only. Thus many biologists A biologist is a scientist devoted to and producing results in biology through the study of life. Typically biologists study organisms and their relationship to their environment. Biologists involved in basic research attempt to discover underlying mechanisms that govern how organisms work. Biologist involved in applied research attempt to develop consider Hominidae to include Pongidae as the subfamily Ponginae, or restrict the latter to the orangutans and their extinct relatives like Gigantopithecus Gigantopithecus is an extinct genus of ape that existed from roughly one million years to as recently as three-hundred thousand years ago, in what is now China, India, and Vietnam, placing Gigantopithecus in the same time frame and geographical location as several hominin species. The fossil record suggests that the Gigantopithecus blacki species. The taxonomy shown here follows the monophyletic groupings according to the two theories of human and great ape relationships.

Especially close human relatives form a subfamily What does and does not belong to each family is determined by a taxonomist. Similarly for the question if a particular family should be recognized at all. Often there is no exact agreement, with different taxonomists each taking a different position. There are no hard rules that a taxonomist needs to follow in describing or recognizing a family, the Homininae Homininae is a subfamily of Hominidae, which includes humans, gorillas and chimpanzees, and some extinct human relatives; it comprises all those hominids, such as Australopithecus, that arose after the split from the other great apes. Some researchers go so far as to include chimpanzees^[16] and gorillas^[17][18] in the genus Homo Homo is the genus that includes modern humans and species closely related to them. The genus is estimated to be about 2.3 to 2.4 million years old, evolving from australopithecine ancestors with the appearance of Homo habilis. Specifically, H. habilis is assumed to be the direct descendant of Australopithecus garhi which lived about 2.5 million along with humans, but it is more commonly accepted to describe the relationships as shown here. Alternatively, those fossil relatives that are more closely related to humans than the nearest living great ape species represent members of Hominidae without necessarily assigning subfamily or tribal categories. If the orangutan is the closest living relative of humans, there would be a sister group relationship between Hominidae and Pongidae, with the African apes comprising a separate family (Panidae) according to the morphological evidence.^[14][19]

Many extinct hominids have been studied to help understand the relationship between modern humans and the other extant hominids. Some of the extinct members of this family (as defined to encompass humans and chimpanzees) include Gigantopithecus, Orrorin Orrorin tugenensis is considered to be the second-oldest known hominin ancestor that is possibly related to modern humans, and it is the only species classified in genus Orrorin. The name was given by the discoverers who found Orrorin fossils in the Tugen Hills of Kenya. By using radiometric dating techniques, the volcanic tuffs and lavas, faunal, Ardipithecus Ardipithecus is a very early hominin genus. Two species are described in the literature: A. ramidus, which lived about 4.4 million years ago during the early Pliocene, and A. kadabba, dated to approximately 5.6 million years ago, Kenyanthropus Kenyanthropus platyops is a 3.5 to 3.2 million year old hominin fossil that was discovered in Lake Turkana, Kenya in 1999 by Justus Erus, who was part of Meave Leakey's team. Leaky (2001) proposes that the fossil represents an entirely new hominine genus, while others classify it as a separate species of Australopithecus, Australopithecus platyops,, and the australopithecines The term australopithecine refers generally to any species in the related genera Australopithecus or Paranthropus. These species occurred in the Plio-Pleistocene era, and were bipedal and dentally similar to humans, but with a brain size not much larger than modern apes, lacking the encephalization characteristics of the genus Homo Australopithecus Australopithecus is a genus of hominids that are now extinct. From the evidence gathered by palaeontologists and archaeologists, it appears that the Australopithecus genus evolved in eastern Africa around 4 million years ago before spreading throughout the continent and eventually becoming extinct 2 million years ago. During this time period, and Paranthropus The robust australopithecines, members of the extinct hominin genus Paranthropus , were bipedal hominids that probably descended from the gracile australopithecine hominids (Australopithecus). In the orangutan model of human origin the Hominidae would include the australopiths, and possibly Orrorin and Kenyanthropus, but not Ardipithecus and Sahelanthropus that lack features necessary to provide strong corroboration as hominids.^[20]

The exact criteria for membership in the Homininae under the chimpanzee theory of human origins are not clear, but the subfamily generally includes those species In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are often used, such as based on similarity of DNA or that share more than 97% of their DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid ( /diːˌɒksɨˌraɪbɵ.nuːˈkleɪ.ɪk ˈæsɪd/ (help·info)) (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and some viruses. The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term storage of information. DNA is often compared to a set of with the modern human genome In modern molecular biology, the genome is the entirety of an organism's hereditary information. It is encoded either in DNA or, for many types of virus, in RNA, and exhibit a capacity for language Language is a term most commonly used to refer to so called "natural languages" — the forms of communication considered peculiar to humankind. By extension the term also refers to the type of human thought process which creates and uses language. Essential to both meanings is the systematic creation, maintenance and use of systems of or for simple cultures Culture is a term that has different meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions. However, the word "culture" is most commonly used in three basic senses: beyond the family or band. The theory of mind Theory of mind is the ability to attribute mental states—beliefs, intents, desires, pretending, knowledge, etc.—to oneself and others and to understand that others have beliefs, desires and intentions that are different from one's own. Though there are philosophical approaches to issues raised in such discussions, theory of mind as such is including such faculties as mental state attribution, empathy and even empathetic deception is a controversial criterion distinguishing the adult human alone among the hominids. Humans acquire this capacity at about four and a half years of age, whereas it has neither been proven nor disproven that gorillas and chimpanzees develop a theory of mind.^[21] This is also the case for some New World monkeys New World monkeys are the five families of primates that are found in Central and South America: Callitrichidae, Cebidae, Aotidae, Pitheciidae, and Atelidae. The five families are ranked together as the Platyrrhini infraorder and the Ceboidea superfamily, which are essentially synonymous since Ceboidea is the only living platyrrhine superfamily outside the family of great apes, as, for example, the capuchin monkeys The capuchins (pronounced /kə'putʃən/) are the group of New World monkeys classified as genus Cebus. The range of the capuchin monkeys includes Central America and South America as far south as northern Argentina. Cebus is the only genus in subfamily Cebinae.

However, without the ability to test whether early members of the Homininae (such as Homo erectus Homo erectus is an extinct species of hominid that originated in Africa—and spread as far as China and Java—from the end of the Pliocene epoch to the later Pleistocene, about 1.8 to 1.3 million years ago. There is still disagreement on the subject of the classification, ancestry, and progeny of H. erectus, with two major alternative hypotheses:, Homo neanderthalensis The Neanderthal , or /neɪˈændərtɑːl/), also spelled Neandertal, is an extinct member of the Homo genus that is known from Pleistocene specimens found in Europe and parts of western and central Asia. Neanderthals are either classified as a subspecies of humans (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis) or as a separate species (Homo neanderthalensis), or even the australopithecines) had a theory of mind, it is difficult to ignore similarities seen in their living cousins. Orangutans have also been shown to have culture comparable to that of chimpanzees^[22] and some say that the orangutan may also satisfy these criteria. These scientific debates take on political significance for advocates of Great Ape personhood Great ape personhood is a movement to create legal recognition of bonobos, common chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans as bona fide persons.

Classification

The seven living species of great ape are classified in four genera In biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank (a taxon) used in the classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia. The term comes from Latin genus "descent, family, type, gender", cognate with Greek: γένος – genos, "race, stock, kin". The following classification is commonly accepted:^[1]

• Family Hominidae: humans and other great apes; extinct genera and species excluded.^[1]
  • Subfamily Ponginae
    • Genus Pongo
      • Bornean Orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus
        • Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus
        • Pongo pygmaeus morio
        • Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii
      • Sumatran Orangutan, Pongo abelii
  • Subfamily Homininae
    • Tribe Gorillini
      • Genus Gorilla
        • Western Gorilla, Gorilla gorilla
          • Western Lowland Gorilla, Gorilla gorilla gorilla
          • Cross River Gorilla, Gorilla gorilla diehli
        • Eastern Gorilla, Gorilla beringei
          • Mountain Gorilla, Gorilla beringei beringei
          • Eastern Lowland Gorilla, Gorilla beringei graueri
    • Tribe Hominini
      • Genus Pan
        • Common Chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes
          • Central Chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes troglodytes
          • West African Chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes verus
          • Nigerian Chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes vellerosus
          • Eastern Chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii
        • Bonobo (Pygmy Chimpanzee), Pan paniscus
      • Genus Homo
        • Human, Homo sapiens sapiens

In addition to the extant species and subspecies above, archaeologists, paleontologists, and anthropologists have discovered numerous extinct great ape species. The list below are some of the genera of those discoveries.^[1]

• Subfamily Ponginae (or Pongidae)
  • Gigantopithecus†
  • Sivapithecus†
  • Lufengpithecus†
  • Ankarapithecus†
  • Ouranopithecus†
• Subfamily Homininae (or Hominidae)
  • Homo – immediate ancestors of modern humans
    • Homo habilis†
    • Homo rudolfensis†
    • Homo ergaster†
    • Homo georgicus†
    • Homo erectus†
    • Homo cepranensis†
    • Homo antecessor†
    • Homo heidelbergensis†
    • Homo rhodesiensis†
    • Homo neanderthalensis†
    • Homo sapiens
      • Homo sapiens idaltu†
      • Archaic Homo sapiens (Cro-magnon)†
    • Homo floresiensis†
  • Oreopithecus†(hominid status disputed)
  • Paranthropus†
  • Australopithecus†
  • Sahelanthropus†(hominid status highly problematic)
  • Orrorin†
  • Ardipithecus†
  • Kenyanthropus†

Physical description

The great apes are large, tailless primates, with the smallest living species being the Bonobo at 30 – 40 kilograms in weight, and the largest being the gorillas, with males weighing 140 – 180 kilograms. In all great apes, the males are, on average, larger and stronger than the females, although the degree of sexual dimorphism varies greatly among species. Although most living species are predominantly quadrupedal, they are all able to use their hands for gathering food or nesting materials, and, in some cases, for tool use.^[23]

Most species are omnivorous, but fruit is the preferred food among all but humans. Chimpanzees and orangutans primarily eat fruit. When gorillas run short of fruit at certain times of the year or in certain regions, they resort to eating shoots and leaves, often of bamboo, a type of grass. Gorillas have extreme adaptations for chewing and digesting such low-quality forage, but they still prefer fruit when it is available, often going miles out of their way to find especially preferred fruits. In contrast, humans consume a large proportion of highly processed, low fiber foods, unusual proportions of grains (only very recently) and vertebrate flesh, as well as a wide variety of other foodstuffs. The teeth are similar to those of the Old World monkeys and gibbons, although they are especially large in gorillas. The dental formula is: Human teeth and jaws are markedly smaller for their size than those of other apes. Some scholars have speculated that humans' small teeth and jaws are adaptations to eating cooked food for more than a million years,^[24][25] but this idea remains controversial.^{[citation needed]}

Gestation in great apes lasts 8–9 months, and results in the birth of a single offspring, or, rarely, twins. The young are born helpless, and the mother must care for them for long periods of time. Compared with most other mammals, great apes have a remarkably long adolescence, not being weaned for several years, and not becoming fully mature for 8–13 years in most species (longer in humans). As a result, females typically give birth only once every few years. There is no distinct breeding season.^[23]

Gorillas and chimpanzees live in family groups of around five to ten individuals, although much larger groups are sometimes noted. Chimpanzees live in larger groups that break up into smaller groups when fruit becomes less available. When small groups of female chimpanzees go off in separate directions to forage for fruit, the dominant male(s) can no longer control them and the females often mate with other subordinate males, whether by choice or not. In contrast, groups of gorillas stay together regardless of the availability of fruit. When fruit is hard to find, they resort to eating leaves and shoots. Because gorilla groups stay together, the male is able to monopolize the females in his group. This fact is related to gorillas' greater sexual dimorphism than chimpanzees'. In both chimpanzees and gorillas, the groups include at least one dominant male, and females leave the group at maturity. By contrast, orangutans are generally solitary. The social structure of humans is complex and highly variable. DNA studies suggest that, as in other apes, female humans are the sex that leaves the group at maturity, or at least has done so over evolutionary time.^{[citation needed]}

Legal status

Due to the close genetic relationship between humans and other great apes, certain animal rights organizations, such as the Great Ape Project, argue that non-human great apes are persons and should be given basic human rights. Some countries have instituted a research ban to protect great apes from any kind of scientific testing.

On 25 June 2008, the Spanish parliament supported a new law that would make "keeping apes for circuses, television commercials or filming" illegal.^[26]

See also

• Great ape language
  • The Mind of an Ape
• Primate cognition
• List of non-human apes – notable individual apes
• Ape extinction
  • Great Apes Survival Project
  • Kinshasa Declaration on Great Apes
• Human evolution
  • Timeline of human evolution

Notes

1. ^ "Great ape" is a common name rather than a taxonomic label and there are differences in usage. Subtly, it may seem to exclude human beings ("humans and the great apes") or to include them ("humans and non-human great apes").

References

1. ^ ^{a b c d e} Groves, C. (2005). Wilson, D. E., & Reeder, D. M, eds. ed. Mammal Species of the World (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 181–184. ISBN 0-801-88221-4. http://www.bucknell.edu/msw3/browse.asp?id=12100786.
2. ^ Andrew Hill & Steven Ward (1988). "Origin of the Hominidae: The Record of African Large Hominoid Evolution Between 14 My and 4 My". Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 31 (59): 49–83. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330310505
3. ^ ^{a b} Dawkins R (2004) The Ancestor's Tale.
4. ^ http://www.timetree.org/time_e_query.php?taxon_a=Hominidae&taxon_b=Hylobatidae
5. ^ Brunet, Michel; Guy, Pilbeam, Taisso, et al (11 July 2002). "A new hominid from the Upper Miocene of Chad, Central Africa". Nature (Nature Publishing Group) 418 (418): 145–151. doi:10.1038/nature00879. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 12110880. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v418/n6894/full/nature00879.html. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
6. ^ Whitfield, John (11 July 2002). "Oldest member of human family found". Nature. http://www.nature.com/news/2002/020711/full/news020708-12.html. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
7. ^ ^{a b} Patterson, Nick; Richter, Daniel J.; Gnerre, Sante; Lander, Eric S.; Reich, David (2006). "Genetic evidence for complex speciation of humans and chimpanzees". Nature 441 (7097): 1103–1108. doi:10.1038/nature04789. PMID 16710306. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v441/n7097/abs/nature04789.html
8. ^ Jay Kelley (1994). "Evolution of apes". in Steve Jones, Robert Martin & David Pilbeam. Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution. Cambridge, U.K: Cambridge University Press. pp. 223–230. ISBN 0-521-46786-1 (see pp229-230 for summary of DNA dating)
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11. ^ Feng-Chi Chen1, & Wen-Hsiung Li (February 2004). "Genomic Divergences between Humans and Other Hominoids and the Effective Population Size of the Common Ancestor of Humans and Chimpanzees". The American Journal of Human Genetics 68 (2): 444–456. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1235277/
12. ^ Schaffner, Stephen F (January 2004). "The X Chromosome in Population Genetics". Nature Reviews Genetics 5 (1): 43–54. doi:10.1038/nrg1247. PMID 14708015. http://www.broadinstitute.org/~sfs/nrg_Xchrom.pdf
13. ^ Schwartz, J.H. (2005) The Red Ape. Westview Press.
14. ^ ^{a b} Grehan, J.R. (2006) Mona Lisa Smile: The morphological enigma of human and great ape evolution. Anatomical Record 289B: 139-157.
15. ^ Schwartz, J.H. (2004) Barking up the wrong ape - australopiths and the quest for chimpanzee characters in hominid fossils. Colloquim Antropologicum Supplement 28: 87-100.
16. ^ Pickrell, John (2003-05-20). "Chimps Belong on Human Branch of Family Tree, Study Says". National Geographic. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/05/0520_030520_chimpanzees.html. Retrieved 2007-08-04.
17. ^ Relationship Humans-Gorillas.
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19. ^ Schwartz, J.H. (1986) Primate systematics and a classification of the order. Comparative primate biology volume 1: Systematics, evolution, and anatomy (ed. by D.R. Swindler, and J. Erwin), pp. 1-41, Alan R. Liss, New York.
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21. ^ Heyes, C. M. (1998). "Theory of Mind in Nonhuman Primates". Behavioral and Brain Sciences 21. doi:10.1017/S0140525X98000703. bbs00000546. http://www.bbsonline.org/documents/a/00/00/05/46/index.html.
22. ^ Van Schaik, C.P. et al. (2003) Orangutan cultures and the evolution of material culture. Science 299: 102-105.
23. ^ ^{a b} Harcourt, A.H., MacKinnon, J. & Wrangham, R.W. (1984). Macdonald, D.. ed. The Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York: Facts on File. pp. 422–439. ISBN 0-87196-871-1.
24. ^ Brace, C. Loring; Mahler, Paul Emil (1971). "Post-Pleistocene changes in the human dentition". American Journal of Physical Anthropology 34 (2): 191–203. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330340205. PMID 5572603. http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/37509
25. ^ Richard Wrangham (2007). "Chapter 12: The Cooking Enigma". in Charles Pasternak (ed.). What Makes Us Human?. Oxford: Oneworld Press. ISBN 978-1851-68519-6.
26. ^ "Spanish parliament to extend rights to apes". Reuters. 2008-06-25. http://www.reuters.com/article/scienceNews/idUSL256586320080625. Retrieved 2008-07-11.

External links

• Renderings of Hominid Exemplars at the Smithsonian
• Additional information on great apes
• NPR News: Toumaï the Human Ancestor
• Hominid Species at TalkOrigins Archive
• For more details on Hominid species, including excellent photos of fossil hominids
• New Scientist 19 May 2003 – Chimps are human, gene study implies
• Scientific American Magazine (April 2006 Issue) Why Are Some Animals So Smart?
• A new mediterranean hominoid-hominid link discovered, Anoiapithecus brevirostris, "Lluc": http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2009/06/01/0811730106.abstract . Link to graphical reconstruction

Categories: Apes | Human evolution

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